Ecstasy as a Social Drug: How MDMA Affects Emotional Response
Ecstasy as a Social Drug: How MDMA Affects Emotional Response
3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, 'ecstasy') is used recreationally to improve mood and sociability, and has generated clinical interest as a possible adjunct to psychotherapy. One way that MDMA may produce positive 'prosocial' effects is by changing responses to emotional stimuli, especially stimuli with social content. Here, we examined for the first time how MDMA affects subjective responses to positive, negative and neutral emotional pictures with and without social content. We hypothesized that MDMA would dose-dependently increase reactivity to positive emotional stimuli and dampen reactivity to negative stimuli, and that these effects would be most pronounced for pictures with people in them. The data were obtained from two studies using similar designs with healthy occasional MDMA users (total N = 101). During each session, participants received MDMA (0, 0.75 and 1.5 mg/kg oral), and then rated their positive and negative responses to standardized positive, negative and neutral pictures with and without social content. MDMA increased positive ratings of positive social pictures, but reduced positive ratings of non-social positive pictures. We speculate this 'socially selective' effect contributes to the prosocial effects of MDMA by increasing the comparative value of social contact and closeness with others. This effect may also contribute to its attractiveness to recreational users.
The amphetamine analog 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, 'ecstasy') is often used recreationally in social settings, reportedly because it enhances mood, and uniquely increases feelings of sociability and connectedness with others (Bravo, 2001; Ter Bogt and Engels, 2005; Sumnall et al., 2006). MDMA is a potent releaser of the monoamine neurotransmitters norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine, which are involved in physiological arousal, mood regulation and drug reinforcement. There is also evidence that MDMA releases oxytocin, a neuropeptide involved in affiliative behaviors (Dumont et al., 2009; Hysek et al., 2012a, in press). It has been proposed that this increase in oxytocin mediates the effects of MDMA on prosocial behavior in rats and subjective feelings of sociability in humans (Thompson et al., 2007; Dumont et al., 2009). Although the 'prosocial' effects of MDMA appear to contribute to both its recreational use and abuse potential (Ter Bogt and Engels, 2005; McGregor et al., 2008), comparatively little is known about which basic emotional processes the drug alters to produce these effects. MDMA may produce 'prosocial' effects in several ways: by directly producing positive and prosocial subjective states, by altering responses to stimuli encountered under the influence of the drug (e.g. enhancing responses to positive stimuli and dampening responses to negative stimuli) or by affecting responses to social stimuli in particular. A better understanding of these effects could help researchers understand why MDMA is used, and how it alters behavior. Here, we examined the effects of MDMA or placebo on a measure of emotional reactivity to social compared to non-social stimuli, to examine whether the effects of MDMA are specific to social stimuli.
Controlled, double-blind studies show that MDMA alters subjective mood states as well as emotional and social processing. The drug dose-dependently increases euphoria, positive mood states and feelings of sociability (Tancer and Johanson, 2001; Harris et al., 2002; Bedi et al., 2010; Hysek et al., 2012a, 2013; Kirkpatrick et al., 2012). MDMA improves recognition of positive mental states, such as friendliness in others (Hysek et al., 2012a), and increases the degree of arousal reported in response to pictures of people in positive emotional situations (Hysek et al., 2013). Conversely, MDMA impairs recognition of negative states such as expressions of anger or fear (Bedi et al., 2010; Hysek et al., 2012a). Brain imaging reveals similar modifications in neural responses to emotional expressions, with MDMA (1.5 mg/kg) increasing ventral striatum response to happy facial expressions and decreasing amygdala response to angry facial expressions (Bedi et al., 2009). However, these previous studies do not provide evidence to determine whether MDMA changes responses to positive and negative emotional stimuli in general, or whether its effects are specific to social stimuli. This is the question addressed here.
We investigated the effects of oral MDMA (0, 0.75 and 1.5 mg/kg) on reactivity to emotionally positive, negative and neutral pictures with or without social content, in occasional MDMA users (N = 101). We hypothesized that the drug would dose-dependently increase reactivity to positive emotional stimuli and dampen reactivity to negative stimuli, and that this effect would be greater for social pictures compared with non-social pictures.
Abstract and Introduction
Abstract
3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, 'ecstasy') is used recreationally to improve mood and sociability, and has generated clinical interest as a possible adjunct to psychotherapy. One way that MDMA may produce positive 'prosocial' effects is by changing responses to emotional stimuli, especially stimuli with social content. Here, we examined for the first time how MDMA affects subjective responses to positive, negative and neutral emotional pictures with and without social content. We hypothesized that MDMA would dose-dependently increase reactivity to positive emotional stimuli and dampen reactivity to negative stimuli, and that these effects would be most pronounced for pictures with people in them. The data were obtained from two studies using similar designs with healthy occasional MDMA users (total N = 101). During each session, participants received MDMA (0, 0.75 and 1.5 mg/kg oral), and then rated their positive and negative responses to standardized positive, negative and neutral pictures with and without social content. MDMA increased positive ratings of positive social pictures, but reduced positive ratings of non-social positive pictures. We speculate this 'socially selective' effect contributes to the prosocial effects of MDMA by increasing the comparative value of social contact and closeness with others. This effect may also contribute to its attractiveness to recreational users.
Introduction
The amphetamine analog 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, 'ecstasy') is often used recreationally in social settings, reportedly because it enhances mood, and uniquely increases feelings of sociability and connectedness with others (Bravo, 2001; Ter Bogt and Engels, 2005; Sumnall et al., 2006). MDMA is a potent releaser of the monoamine neurotransmitters norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine, which are involved in physiological arousal, mood regulation and drug reinforcement. There is also evidence that MDMA releases oxytocin, a neuropeptide involved in affiliative behaviors (Dumont et al., 2009; Hysek et al., 2012a, in press). It has been proposed that this increase in oxytocin mediates the effects of MDMA on prosocial behavior in rats and subjective feelings of sociability in humans (Thompson et al., 2007; Dumont et al., 2009). Although the 'prosocial' effects of MDMA appear to contribute to both its recreational use and abuse potential (Ter Bogt and Engels, 2005; McGregor et al., 2008), comparatively little is known about which basic emotional processes the drug alters to produce these effects. MDMA may produce 'prosocial' effects in several ways: by directly producing positive and prosocial subjective states, by altering responses to stimuli encountered under the influence of the drug (e.g. enhancing responses to positive stimuli and dampening responses to negative stimuli) or by affecting responses to social stimuli in particular. A better understanding of these effects could help researchers understand why MDMA is used, and how it alters behavior. Here, we examined the effects of MDMA or placebo on a measure of emotional reactivity to social compared to non-social stimuli, to examine whether the effects of MDMA are specific to social stimuli.
Controlled, double-blind studies show that MDMA alters subjective mood states as well as emotional and social processing. The drug dose-dependently increases euphoria, positive mood states and feelings of sociability (Tancer and Johanson, 2001; Harris et al., 2002; Bedi et al., 2010; Hysek et al., 2012a, 2013; Kirkpatrick et al., 2012). MDMA improves recognition of positive mental states, such as friendliness in others (Hysek et al., 2012a), and increases the degree of arousal reported in response to pictures of people in positive emotional situations (Hysek et al., 2013). Conversely, MDMA impairs recognition of negative states such as expressions of anger or fear (Bedi et al., 2010; Hysek et al., 2012a). Brain imaging reveals similar modifications in neural responses to emotional expressions, with MDMA (1.5 mg/kg) increasing ventral striatum response to happy facial expressions and decreasing amygdala response to angry facial expressions (Bedi et al., 2009). However, these previous studies do not provide evidence to determine whether MDMA changes responses to positive and negative emotional stimuli in general, or whether its effects are specific to social stimuli. This is the question addressed here.
We investigated the effects of oral MDMA (0, 0.75 and 1.5 mg/kg) on reactivity to emotionally positive, negative and neutral pictures with or without social content, in occasional MDMA users (N = 101). We hypothesized that the drug would dose-dependently increase reactivity to positive emotional stimuli and dampen reactivity to negative stimuli, and that this effect would be greater for social pictures compared with non-social pictures.
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