Babies

• Although all births are a source of joy among Native American tribes, the birth of a son many years ago was cause for great celebration because they would grow up to become hunters, helping ensure that the tribe would remain fed by providing meat. Infants of both sexes remained with their mothers and, occasionally, other women in the tribe for most of their first eight months. A baby was wrapped in cloths and placed on a cradleboard, which is a straight board thickly covered with decorated skins. The child then was carried on his mother's back. Children were named shortly after birth, sometimes by the father; but, if they were fortunate, they were named by the tribe's shaman or holy man.
  
  

Youngsters

• From the time they began walking until about age eight, children of both sexes played games that served to school them for the roles they would eventually assume upon reaching adulthood. Girl children played with dolls, either made for them or by their own hands, as well as toy tepees and cradleboards. A little girl's role among the women began to take hold as she developed strong ties to her aunts and grandmother as well as her mother.
  
  Very small boys played with toy versions of the animals they would grow up to hunt, such as bison. Later, they played at being hunters and warriors, using child-sized bows as well as arrows and spears with blunted points. A little boy would sit, rapt at his grandfather's side, quietly listening to stories of great hunts and other feats of daring.
  
  By age eight, boys and girls both began to contribute to tribal life, each in a role suited to their gender. A little girl fetched firewood and water and collected berries and nuts. A little boy graduated to pointed arrows and spears with which to hunt small game. By age 12, children of both sexes had learned all the skills they would need to function as adult members of the tribe.
  
  

Entry Into Adulthood

• A Native American youth left childhood behind at puberty. Entry to adulthood was celebrated with initiation rites and ceremonies that involved the entire tribe. A young man's journey toward initiation began before the onset of puberty. First, he would be instructed in all the duties of manhood, including waging war, hunting and making his own tools. Next, many tribes subjected the young initiate to various rituals in which the boy would be exposed to increasing degrees of pain. These might include being suspended by hooks through the flesh or having stinging nettles rubbed all over his body. The boy also would undertake a "vision quest," often with the help of a hallucinogen of some type, during which time he would identify his totem animal or spirit animal. Finally, the elders or shaman of the tribe would perform the final rite of initiation, which traditionally carried a strong spiritual message. He was now a man and a fully functioning member of the tribe.
  
  A young woman experienced a similar rite of passage. A girl's entry into adulthood was not marked by a ritual as such; instead, she would be instructed by the elder females of the tribe on matters such as pregnancy and childbirth. After a period of instruction, she would go off and spend time in seclusion. Upon her return, the entire tribe would celebrate her entry into womanhood.
  
  

Elders

• Native American people placed a high value on their elderly family members. The entire tribe shared in the care of the elderly, who were valued for their experience and wisdom. Elders were treated with respect by all, including children, and were routinely consulted about family decisions. They were often placed in charge of teaching the tribe's children to keep tribal history and traditions alive.
  
  

Additional Roles

• The Native American tribes that operated under a formal political structure had, at their heads, a chief. He might have gained his title and authority by any of several means, including age, family inheritance, prowess as a warrior or accomplishment of other significant deeds. The chief's authority generally entailed settling disputes among tribe members, although some chiefs also served as leaders during times of war. In some tribes, the chief also might have been the spiritual leader.
  
  The shaman or priest is another role in traditional Native American culture. These individuals cared for both the spiritual and physical health of the tribe members. Shamans could not only cast out demons, they could heal physical injuries and illnesses as well. To become a shaman, an individual had to inherit the role from his uncle or, in some cases, reveal his aptitude for the role by collapsing into unconsciousness for a certain interval. Shamans were usually men, although women did become shamans in some tribes, such as the Songish people of Vancouver Island. The common ground among all types of shamans was their ability to communicate with the spirit realm.